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BULLETIN 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  TEXAS 


No.  141 


FOUR  TIMES  A  MONTH 


OFFICIAL  SERIES  No.  42 


FEBRUARY  15,  1910 


Physiology  and  Hygiene  in  the 
High  School 


By 
J.   THOS.  PATTERSON 


/'  ^  OF    THE 

f    UNIVER8 

• 


Published  by 

THE    UNIVERSITY    OF    TEXAS 
AUSTIN,  TEXAS 

^ 

Entered  as  second-class  mail  matter  at  the  postoffice  at  Austin,  Texas 


AUSTIN    PRINTING   COMPANY 
AUSTIN.   TEXAS 

1912 


Cultivated  inind  is  the  guardian 
genius  of  democracy  ...  It 
is  the  only  dictator  that  freemen 
acknowledge  and  the  only  security 
that  freemen  desire. 

President  Mirabeau  B.   Lamar. 


PHYSIOLOGY   AND    HYGIENE    IN    THE 
HIGH  SCHOOLS 

The  frequent  requests  coming  to  the  University  for  information 
concerning  the  teaching  of  physiology  in  the  secondary  schools  of 
the  state,  together  with  the  inquiries  directed  to  the  Visitor  of 
Schools  as  to  how  affiliation  may  be  obtained  in  this  subject,  have 
prompted  the  publication  of  this  bulletin.  The  object  of  the  bul- 
letin, therefore,  may  be  said  to  be  twofold  :.  first,  to  give  some  sug- 
gestions to  the  superintendents  and  teachers  of  the  state  that  may 
help  them  in  organizing  the  work  in  physiology;  and,  second,  to 
facilitate  the  work  of  affiliation  by  suggesting  the  minimum  re- 
quirements for  a  one-half  unit  entrance  credit  at  the  University. 

A  knowledge  of  the  elementary  principles  of  physiology,  hy- 
giene, and  sanitation  is  of  fundamental  importance  to  the  welfare 
of  the  community ;  and,  while  this  fact  is  generally  recognized,  it 
is  doubtful  whether  any  other  subject  of  such  intrinsic  importance 
as  physiology  has  been  more  generally  neglected  and  less  effect- 
ively taught  in  our  High  Schools.  It  is  believed  by  many  that  this 
unfortunate  state  of  affairs  has  been  brought  about  very  largely 
as  a  result  of  too  mudK  emphasis  being  placed  on  anatomy,  and 
not  enough  on  pure  physiology  and  hygiene.  The  subject  should 
be  so  presented  as  to  give  to  the  individual  the  greatest  possible 
benefit,  and  to  be  of  practical  value  to  him  in  meeting  the  prob- 
lems of  his  daily  life. 

One  must  agree  that  the  over-emphasis  of  anatomy  is  a  cause 
for  the  ineffectiveness  of  physiology  teaching,  and  that  there  is 
need  of  a  reorganization  of  the  work  along  the  lines  just  sug- 
gested. A  careful  study  of  the  problem,  nevertheless,  forces  one 
to  the  conviction  that  the  prime  difficulty  lies  in  the  fact  that  too 
many  of  our  teachers  have  had  no  special  training  in  physiology. 
Th^re  seems  to  be  a.  more  or  less  popular  notion  that  any  normal 
or  college  graduate  can  teach  physiology  successfully,  and  conse- 
quently there  is  a  great  tendency  for  superintendents  to  assign 
the  physiology  to  teachers  who  have  no  aptitude  for  biological  sub- 
jects, or  who  have  not  had  adequate  training  in  the  work.  No 
greater  mistake  is  possible,  or  more  sure  of  giving  unsatisfactory 
results.  It  is  a  well  known  fact  that  no  one  can  teach  up  to  the 

32783G 


4'  *  ^*    Blilliinn-  trf  the  University  of  Texas 

limits  of  'his  knowledge  of  a  subject,  and  any  teacher  looking  for- 
ward to  giving  work  in  physiology,  equivalent  to  one-half  unit  of 
credit,  should  take  not  less  than  a  year's  work  under  competent 
instruction. 


REQUIREMENTS  FOR  AFFILIATION 

TEXT-BOOKS. 

In  the  light  of  what  has  been  said  above,  the  selection  of  a  text- 
book becomes  of  paramount  importance — and  this  all  the  more  so 
because  a  great  many  of  the  elementary  texts  are  crowded  full  of 
anatomical  details,  with  but  little  emphasis  on  physiology  and 
hygiene.  It  is  true  that  one  can  not  appreciate  physiology  with- 
out some  knowledge  of  morphology,  but  the  greater  part  of  the 
necessary  anatomy  is  more  easily  understood  from  a  study  of 
demonstrations  in  the  laboratory  than  from  reading  descriptions 
in  text-books. 

The  selection  of  a  text  will  depend  upon  the  age  of  the  pupils 
for  whom  it  is  intended.  It  is  evident  that  for  the  first  or  second 
year  of  the  high  school  a  more  elementary  book  should  be  used 
than  for  the  third  or  fourth  year. 

If  the  physiology  is  offered  in  the  first  or  second  year,  one  of 
the  following  books  may  be  used :  Overton's  Applied  Physiology, 
Advanced  (American  Book  Company)  ;  A  Practical  Physiology, 
by  Blaisdell  (Ginn  &  Company)  ;  The  Human  Body  and  Health, 
by  Davison  (American  Book  Company)  ;  Martin's  Human  Body 
(briefer  course),  (Henry  Holt  &  Company)  ;  High  School  Physi- 
ology, by  Hewes  (American  Book  Company). 

The  Human  Mechanism,  by  Hough  .  and  Sedgwick  ( Ginn  & 
Co.) ,  should,  if  possible,  be  used  in  the  Junior  or  Senior  year.  In 
the  writer 's  judgment,  this  is  by  far  the  bestrtext-book  for  High 
School  work  in  physiology  that  has  so  far  appeared.  The  subject 
is  clearly  and  simply  presented,  and  the  authors  have  done  this 
without  sacrificing  scientific  accuracy. 

LABORATORY  WORK. 

1.     To  Be  Done  by  the  Teacher. 

It  is  impossible  to  give  a  successful  course  in  physiology  with- 
out requiring  laboratory  work  of  the  pupils ;  but  there  are  certain 
parts  of  the  work  that  should  be  done  by  the  teacher.  In  general, 
it  is  not  advisable  to  require  of  young  pupils  dissections  of  the 


6  Bulletin  of  the  University  of  Texas 

character  necessary  for  physiology.  The  dissections  should  be 
done  in  private  by  the  teacher,  and  then  demonstrated  to  the  class 
in  the  laboratory.  All  of  the  more  important  organs,  such  as 
heart,  lungs,  stomach,  kidneys,  etc.,  should  be  demonstrated  in 
this  way ;  and  for  this  purpose  any  common  mammal  ( cat,  rabbit, 
rat,  or  mouse)  may  be  used,  or  the  organs  of  large  animals  ob- 
tained from  the  local  butchers  will  serve. 

2.     To  Be  Done  by  the  Pupils. 

It  is  better  perhaps  to  use  a  text-boo^  in  which  laboratory  work 
is  indicated,  but  in  order  that  the  courses  may  be  as  uniform  as 
possible,  the  following  sample  experiments  are  suggested,  of 
which  not  less  than  thirty  carefully  selected  ones  should  be  per- 
formed. These  exercises  are  taken,  for  the  most  part,  from 
Brown's  Physiology  for  the  Laboratory  (Ginn  &  Co.),  a  book 
which  it  would  be  advisable  for  the  teacher  to  secure. 

The  Bones. 

1.  A  fresh  bone  sawed  lengthwise ;  to  study  the  gross  structure 
of  bones. 

2.  Joints  of  pig  and  beef ;  to  study  the  various  types  of  joints 
and  the  structure  of  the  synovial  cavity  and  membrane. 

3.  Several   consecutive  vertebrae;   to   show  their   method   of 
articulation  in  the  vertebral  column. 

4.  A  simple  lever ;  to  demonstrate  the  different  types  of  levers 
in  bones. 

5.  Remove  the  animal  matter  in  a  bone  by  heating;  to  show 
the  presence  of  mineral  matter. 

6.  Remove  the  mineral  matter  by  treating  the  bone  with  a 
dilute  acid;  to  show  the  presence  of  animal  matter. 

The.  Muscles. 

1.  Leg  of  a  frog  or  toad;  to  study  the  parts  of  a  typical 
muscle. 

8.  A  piece  of.  lean  corned  beef;  to  study  the  structure  of  a 
muscle. 

9.  A    frog,   just    recently    etheri/od :    stimulate   the    exposed 


rhysioloyy  and  Hygiene  In  the  Hiyh  School  7 

sciatic  nerve  and  study  the  reactions  occurring1  in  the  gastrocne- 
mius  muscle. 

10.  Study  the  actions  of  the  muscles  in  the  arm. 

The  Blood. 

11.  A   drop  of  human  blood;  to  study  the  elements  of  the 
blood. 

12.  Fresh  frog's  blood;  allow  the  blood  to  stand,  and  study 
the  process  of  clotting. 

13.  Large  beef  hearts;  to  study  the  cavities,  the  valves,  and 
the  connecting  vessels  of  the  heart, 

14.  Fresh   frog's  blood;   breathe  into  the   fresh  blood,   and 
study  the  effect  of  the  presence  or  absence  of  oxygen  on  the  color 
of  the  blood. 

15.  A   frog  recently  etherized;  expose  heart,  and  study  the 
action  of  the  heart. 

16.  Circulation  of  blood;  use  a  living  frog,  and  study  the  cir- 
culation of  the  blood  in  the  web  of  the  foot. 


ij  System. 


17.  Lungs  ami  trachea  of  large  animal;  to  study  the  gross 
structure  of  the  respiratory  system. 

18.  Pass  the  air  from  the  lungs  through  lime  water  ;  to  show 
the  presence  of  carbon  dioxide. 

11).     Study  the  mechanism  of  respiration  in  the  human  body. 

Digestive  System. 

20.  Demonstrate  the  entire  digestive  system  of  some  mammal. 

21.  Study  the  different  kinds  of  teeth. 

22.  Study  the  character  of  the  principal  foodstuffs. 

2-S.     Salivary  digestion;  study  the  effect  of  diastase  on  starch 
paste. 

24.  Gastric  digestion  ;  study  the  effect  of  pepsin  on  lean  meat. 

25.  Pancreatic  digestion  ;  study  the  effect  of  pancreatin  on 
foods. 


Bulletin  of  the  University  of  Texas 

Excretory  System. 

26.  Study  the  gross  structure  of  the  kidney  of  any  large 
animal. 

27.  Study  the  structure  of  the  skin. 

Nervous  System. 

28.  Study  the  brain  of  the  sheep  or  cat. 

29.  Spinal  cord  of  a  large  animal ;  to  study  the  way  in  which 
the  roots  of  the  spinal  nerves  arise. 

30.  Demonstrate  the  sympathetic  ganglia. 

31.  Etherize  a  frog  and  sever  the  spinal  cord  from  the  brain, 
and  destroy  the  latter ;  to  study  reflex  action  in  the  spinal  cord. 

The  Special  Senses. 

32.  Eye  of  an  ox ;  to  study  the  structure  of  the  eye. 

33.  By  means  of  a  double  convex  lens  throw  the  image  of 
a  candle-flame  on  a  ground  glass  plate:  to  study  the  method  by 
which  an  image  is  formed  by  the  lens  of  the  eye. 

34.  Study  "accommodation,"  defects  in  vision  (nearsighted- 
ness  and  farsightedness),  and  "astigmatism"  in  the  eye. 

35.  Study  the  structure  of  the  ear  of  any  large  animal. 

36.  Test  the  hearing  by  holding  a  watch  at  different  distances 
from  the  ear. 

37.  Use  a  pair  of  dividers  and  test  the  sensibility  of  the  skin. 

38.  Test  the  senses  of  smell  and  taste. 

The  Bacteria-. 

39.  Have  a  fly  walk  across  the  sterilized  nutrient  gelatin  in  a 
Petri  dish,  and  study  the  infections  that  follow. 

40.  Study  the  bacteria  of  the  air,  water,  and  milk,  by  the  Petri 
dish  method. 

NOTE  BOOK. 

Each  student  should  be  required  to  keep  a  note  book,  in  which 
are  recorded  drawings,  accounts  of  experiments  performed,  ap- 
paratus used,  and  comments  upon  the  work.  The  teacher  should 
insist  upon  having  the  notes  written  neatly,  clearly  and  concisely. 


Physiology  and  Hygiene  In  the  High  School  9 

Drawings  should  be  clear  outlines  of  the  objects  illustrated.    The 
notes  should  not  be  taken  from  the  laboratory  by  the  student,  and 
the  teacher  should  examine  them  frequently  to  see  that  the  work 
is  being  done  properly. 
/ 

LABORATORY  EQUIPMENT. 

Microscope  and  Accessories. 

At  least  one  compound  microscope. 
One  box  of  glass  slides. 

A  set  of  instruments  consisting  of  scissors,  forceps,  scalpel,  dis- 
secting needles,  and  bone-forceps. 
One  box  of  cover  glasses. 
One  hand  section  razor. 

One  double  convex  lens,  two  inches  in  diameter. 
One  half-dozen  medicine  droppers. 
Glass  and  rubber  tubing. 
Two  dozen  test-tubes. 
Six  Petri  dishes,  four  inches  in  diameter. 

CHEMICALS. 

Three  per  cent  hydrochloric  acid,  200  c.c. 
Nitric  acid,  200  c.c. 
Strong  ammonia,  200  c.c. 

Ninety-five  per  cent  alcohol  (ethyl  alcohol),  500  c.c. 
Ether,  200  c.c. 
Chloroform,  600  c.c. 
Caustic  soda  potash,  500  c.c. 
Castor  oil,  400  c.c. 
Tincture  of  iodine,  50  c.c. 
Glycerine,  200  c.c. 
Bichromate  of  potash,  200  c.c. 
Methyl  green  stain,  200  c.c.,  in  solution. 
Sodium  carbonate,  200  c.c. 
Formalin,  2000  c.c. 
Two  pounds  of  nutrient  gelatin. 

The  microscope,  accessories,  and  chemicals  may  be  secured  from 
Bauseh  &  Lomb,  Rochester,  N.  Y. ;  or  the  chemicals  from  Eimer 


10  Bulletin  of  the  University  of  Texas 

&  Amend,  205-211  Third  Avenue,  New  York  City.  Any  other  re- 
agents that  may  be  needed  from  time  to  time  may  be  secured  from 
the  local  drug  stores,  and  all  of  the  varjous  materials  used  in  the 
experiments,  such  as  starch,  flour,  sugar,  eggs,  pancreatin,  rennet, 
etc.,  can  also  be  bought  from  local  dealers.  It  is  estimated  that 
the  above  equipment  can  be  had  at  a  cost  not  to  exceed  $50  or  $60. 


GENERAL  SUGGESTIONS 

The  course  outlined  above  meets  the  minimum  requirements  for 
affiliation  for  one-half  unit  of  entrance  credit;  and,  as  may  be 
seen,  it  represents  a  very  modest  beginning.  There  are  some 
High  Schools  in  the  State  in  which  more  comprehensive  courses 
are  now  offered;  but,  as  the  work  in  physiology  becomes  better 
organized,  the  requirements  for  affiliation  in  this  subject  will  be 
raised.  Advancement  in  standards  should  be  made  along  the  fol- 
lowing lines1: 

Better  Laboratory  Equipment. — The  study  of  any  course  in 
natural  science  should  result  in  a  twofold  value  to  the  student : 
(1)  Its  practical  value,  and  (2)  its  value  in  developing  the 
power  of  independent  thought.  The  latter  is  secured  mainly 
through  efficient  laboratory  work,  and  to  do  efficient  work  re- 
quires a  good  laboratory  equipment,  i.  e.,  one  that  will  permit, 
each  student  to  have  his  own  instruments,  and  work  inde- 
pendently of  the  rest  of  the  class.  The  laboratory  should  be 
equipped,  therefore,  with  a  compound  microscope  and  a  dissect- 
ing set  for  each  student. 

The  following  pieces  of  apparatus  also  should  be  added  to  the 
equipment :  (1)  A  mounted  human  skeleton ;  (2)  a  model  show- 
ing the  positions  of  the  organs  in  the  thoracic  and  abdominal 
cavities ;  (3)  a  model  of  section  through  the  head,  showing  mouth, 
nose,  throat,  and  position  of  the  brain  in  the  cranium;  (4)  models 
of  circulatory  organs,  eye,  ear.  and  throat;  (5)  a  mechanical 
circulatory  apparatus;  (6)  a  mechanical  respiratory  apparatus; 
(7)  an  artificial  eye. 

The  mounted  skeleton  and  models  may  be  secured  from  the 
Kny-Scheerer  Co.,  225  Fourth  Avenue,  New  York,  and  the  other 
supplies  from  the  Harvard  Supply  Co.,  Brookline,  Mass. 

If  the  funds  will  permit,  a  set  of  prepared  slides,  showing  all 
of  the  more  important  tissues,  should  be  secured  for  the  labora- 
tory. 

Reference  Books. — The  students  should  have  access  to  a  number 
of  the  more  important  books  on  physiology,  hygiene,  and  sanita- 
tion. Among  these  may  be  mentioned  Howell's  Text-Book  of 


12  Bulletin  of  the  University  of  Texas 

Physiology,  2d  edition  (Saunders  &  Co.)  ;  Civics  and  Health,  by 
Allen  (Ginn  &  Co.)  ;  Food  and  Dietetics,  by  Hutchinson  (Wm. 
Ward  &  Co.)  ;  Pyle's  Personal  Hygiene  (Saunders  &  Co.)  ;  Prin- 
ciples of  Sanitary  Science  and  Public  Health,  by  Sedgwick  (Mac- 
millan  &  Co.). 

More  Emphasis  on  Pure  Physiology  and  Sanitation. — It  has 
been  pointed  out  that  there  is  great  need  of  placing  emphasis  on 
physiology  and  hygiene,  rather  than  on  anatomy.  In  the  above 
outline  about  all  the  necessary  anatomy  is  indicated,  and  any 
additional  laboratory  experiments,  therefore,  should  be  of  a 
purely  physiological  character.  In  selecting  such  experiments  the 
teacher  can  get  good  suggestions  by  consulting  Porter's  An  Intro- 
duction to  Physiology  ( J.  B.  Lippincott) . 

In  the  selection  of  topics  pertaining  to  sanitation,  the  teacher 
must  be  guided  by  local  conditions,  for  each  community  has  its 
special  sanitary  problems.  Thus,  in  a  region  where  malaria  is 
prevalent,  the  cause  of  that  disease  and  how  to  get  rid  of  mos- 
quitoes are  topics  to  be  considered ;  and  in  a  community  in  which 
typhoid  fever  occurs  the  subjects  of  drinking  water  and  sewage 
should  be  carefully  considered. 

On  Teaching  the  Physiology  of  Reproduction. — Several  letters 
which  have  been  received  here  inquiring  about  the  advisability  of 
teaching  the  physiology  of  reproduction,  make  it  necessary  to  add 
a  word  upon  this  point.  The  advisability  of  teaching  this  subject 
to  High  School  students  must  depend,  to  a  very  great  extent,  on 
the  personality  of  the  teacher.  In  teaching  the  physiology  of  de- 
velopment it  is  not  necessary  to  select  a  highly-developed  form ; 
a  simple  type,  like  the  frog,  can  be  used.  It  is  possible  to  explain 
the  whole  process  of  fertilization  and  early  development  by 
referring  to  the  essentials  of  the  physiology  of  reproduction  in  the 
frog. 

J.  THOS.  PATTERSON. 


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STAMPED  BEI 


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